In This Issue:

  1. Can body posture change a person’s level of confidence and efficacy?

  2. The link between social-emotional learning and Common Core success

  3. Teaching students how to speak effectively in front of an audience

  4. Fostering high-quality classroom discussion

  5. Helping students get past their resistance to writing

  6. Using small-group routines to build ELLs’ skills and self-assurance

  7. Improving high-school grading practices

  8. Is Common Core math too confusing and too hard?

  9. Speed bumps in the implementation of Common Core math

10. Getting elementary students moving in class

11. Short items: (a) Airline travel graphic display; (b) Story starter websites

 

Quotes of the Week

“There are but two kinds of people in the district: those who teach and those who support those who teach.”

            Alvin Wilbanks, Superintendent of the Gwinnett County (GA) Public Schools

 

“From watching and listening to the adults around them, children develop an internal theory of how society works, who has power and influence and what impact an individual can have.”

            Sheldon Berman, Eugene (OR) superintendent, in “Recalling Public Schooling’s Larger

Aims,” School Administrator, November 2014 (Vol. 71, #10, p. 41-43); Berman can

be reached at [email protected]

 

“[W]hat is described by the ‘B’ on the report card? That a student mastered the standards, but came late every day? That the student understood half the standards, but persevered to complete every assignment and extra-credit offering? That the student aced major assessments, but was often disrespectful?”

            Joe Feldman (see item #7)

 

“[K]ids need both the ability to compute with speed and accuracy, to understand the answer they got, and to know whether it makes sense.”

            Robert Pondiscio and Kevin Mahnken (see item #8)

 

“How is it that some students have so much to say when talking out loud, but when a pencil is put into their hand they suddenly hesitate, struggle, and have nothing to say?”

Ali Parrish (see item #5)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Can Body Posture Change a Person’s Level of Confidence and Efficacy?

            In this New York Times article, David Hochman reports on the work of Harvard Business School social psychologist Amy Cuddy, whose research shows the surprising impact of body posture on self-assurance and success. Cuddy, whose phenomenally popular TED talk on this subject is available in the link below, has demonstrated that a confident, expansive, “Wonder Woman” stance is not only an outward manifestation of confidence; striking such a pose can create self-assurance that wasn’t there before.

Conversely, a number of less-confident body postures are common among those who are worried, have low self-esteem, or don’t think they really deserve to be there – for example:

-   Shoulders hunched inward;

-   Arms crossed;

-   Legs crossed;

-   Ankles tightly entwined;

-   Touching one’s face or neck;

-   Raising one’s hand only half-way up in class.

These are part of a self-reinforcing cycle of low confidence and decreased efficacy. Women are particularly prone to less-confident body posture, says Cuddy.

            But if a person about to walk into a high-stakes situation – an interview, a date, a stage performance, teaching a class – takes a couple of minutes alone to strike a confident pose, there’s a boost in confidence and success. Cuddy and her colleagues have measured significant increases in testosterone (a hormone associated with high efficacy) and decreases in cortisone (a stress hormone) after only a short amount of time standing up straight, shoulders back, head up, arms on hips, legs in a wide stance.

Cuddy’s own story is testament to this phenomenon. She once worked as a roller-skating waitress and while in college in Colorado, was seriously injured in a car accident and given little hope of recovering full mental capacity. She persisted, graduated from college, went through graduate school at Princeton, all the time thinking she was an impostor, and worked her way into a professorship at Harvard and finally felt she belonged. “Fake it till you become it,” is Cuddy’s rallying cry for people who struggle as she did.

 

“Amy Cuddy Takes a Stand” by David Hochman in The New York Times, September 19, 2014, http://nyti.ms/1sFpldD

Back to page one

 

2. The Link Between Social-Emotional Learning and Common Core Success

            In this Kappan article, Maurice Elias (Rutgers University) bemoans the fact that social-emotional factors are not always addressed in the current push to prepare students for college and career success. “College poses many challenges,” he says, “particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, whose dropout rates have been estimated as high as 90%. There is a tremendous emotional charge associated with many aspects of college, ranging from fears about family identity and acceptance, loss of peer groups, concerns about fitting in and managing the workload, implications of choices of courses and majors, how to establish a range of new relationships with peers and adults, and lifestyle choices about the use of leisure time, studying, eating, and sleeping.” Studies show that it’s problems in these areas, more than intellectual shortcomings, that lead to most college dropouts.

            Fortunately there’s an emerging consensus on the broader skill-set that puts students on the path to college and career success:

-   Being able to reason clearly, support arguments, and respectfully challenge others;

-   Applying strategic thinking, including analyzing one’s own strategies and traits;

-   Possessing a mindset supportive of hard work and perseverance in the face of difficulty;

-   Being oriented toward independence and responsibility for one’s learning and actions;

-   Developing solid social and emotional competences, including self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making.

Students need this full range of competencies to tackle the Common Core’s challenging steppingstones to college and career success: difficult reading, unfamiliar vocabulary, group discussions with hearty disagreements. To succeed academically, students need to be able to recognize and manage their emotions, especially when they encounter stress, anxiety, frustration, and disappointment. They need stamina and grit, as well as empathy for others’ perspectives, including authors and fictional characters.

            One piece of this deeper education, Elias believes, is taking students beyond simple words like mad, sad, and glad as labels for emotional states. Our ability “to constructively think and act when we are ‘mad’ is much more limited than when we are ‘frustrated,’ ‘puzzled,’ ‘annoyed,’ or even ‘put down,’” he says, “all of which are alternative and often more likely accurate labels to attach to situations than ‘mad.’ Similarly, perceiving that one is ‘mad’ at you or others forecloses possibilities that might be present with a more accurate emotion label… Students who do not have a nuanced understanding of emotions are unlikely to see deep meaning in much of the literature they read and are less likely to be engaged in it.” The same is true in math, science, physical education, and other subjects.

            Elias concludes with a plea to dial back high-stakes testing pressure so that a more balanced education can take shape over several years. “Social-emotional and character development, including a rich constellation of core ethical and civic values, must be intertwined with every strand if children are to use their knowledge for good and not ill, and to serve not only themselves but others,” he says. “The threads of character must touch the threads of knowledge at each and every point, or else there is a chance that the tapestry will unravel.”

“Social-Emotional Skills Can Boost Common Core Implementation” by Maurice Elias in Phi Delta Kappan, November 2014 (Vol. 96, #3, p. 58-62), www.kappanmagazine.org; Elias can be reached at [email protected].

Back to page one

 

3. Teaching Students How to Speak Effectively in Front of an Audience

(Originally titled “Now Presenting…”)

            In this Educational Leadership article, consultant/author Erik Palmer says there are three reasons that so few schools do a good job teaching students public speaking: It’s not on state tests; we think students already know how to speak; and we don’t have good techniques – we assign speaking but don’t teach it. The result is dreary book reports, deadly explanations of science fair projects, and disappointing poetry slams. “If we expect students to learn to speak,” says Palmer (adapting Carol Jago’s dictum on writing), “we need to teach them how. This means embedding in our practice daily opportunities for students to speak, combined with deliberate instruction about the moves good speakers make as they talk.” He challenges schools to make a commitment to developing more-effective speakers by agreeing on a common language and actually teaching students.

            Palmer suggests using the acronym P.V.LEGS as the basis for an effective instructional program on speaking:

-   Poise – Appear calm and confident.

-   Voice – Make every word count.

-   Life – Put passion into your voice.

-   Eye contact – Visually engage each listener.

-   Gestures – Make motions match your words.

-   Speed – Adjust your pace for a powerful performance.

Here are some details for each one:

            • Poise – Students need to be aware of odd tics and behaviors – tugging on a sleeve, fidgeting with one’s fingers, twirling the string of a hoodie, rolling and unrolling papers. Students can be taught to observe behaviors in adults and peers that keep an audience from focusing on the message – and then practice coming across as poised themselves.

            • Voice – Students need to modulate their volume so they’re loud enough – but not too loud – so that every word can be heard and contributes to the message.

            • Life – Teachers can model putting passion into their voices and then have students practice saying a short sentence – I want a peanut – with great expression. Then students can take turns delivering a more substantive sentence with tremendous conviction: 800 million people are starving on this planet! or It was the greatest show I’ve ever seen!

            • Eye contact – Teachers might have a student speak for two minutes on a familiar topic and then poll the class to see how many students believe the speaker made direct eye contact with them at some point – immediate feedback for the speaker! Polls after subsequent presentations will result in better and better eye contact. Students can also discuss why it’s important, model it in one-on-one conversations in school, and observe adults as they speak in person or on TV or in movies.

            • Gestures – Palmer suggests playing a scene from The Princess Bride in which Vizzini and the Dread Pirate Roberts drink from poisoned goblets – with the sound muted – and noticing facial expressions, hand gestures, and body language. For homework, students might find a high-gesture scene and share it with the class.

            • Speed – A teacher might give directions v-e-r-y s-l-o-w-l-y, showing how pace can affect attention and comprehension. Palmer also suggests playing the first two minutes of Martin Luther King Jr.’s I Have a Dream speech, which is quite stately, and then the last portion, which is considerably faster, and discussing why King varied the pace and the impact it had on the audience.

            “If teachers explicitly teach these skills,” Palmer concludes, “when it’s time for students to give a big presentation, the students will know what’s required and will have had the opportunity to practice good speaking along the way. They will have made steps toward becoming effective oral communicators.”

 

“Now Presenting…” by Erik Palmer in Educational Leadership, November 2014 (Vol. 72, #3, p. 24-29), http://bit.ly/1HaXoVH; Palmer can be reached at [email protected].

Back to page one

 

4. Fostering High-Quality Classroom Discussions

(Originally titled “Speaking Volumes”)

            “Students love to talk. So do teachers,” say Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey (San Diego State University) in this Educational Leadership article. But classroom talk is not always productive, and in many classrooms, especially those with low-achieving students, teachers are talking as much as 80 percent of the time. Fisher and Frey suggest a number of ways to maximize the quality of small- and large-group classroom discussions and their impact on thinking, reading, and writing:

            • Offer meaningful and complex tasks. The prompt for a discussion should be relevant, interesting, and engaging, not just completing an assignment or activity.

            • Model behavioral cues. Teachers often need to explicitly teach and then carefully monitor the body language of good group work – students leaning in, gesturing, with attentive facial expressions. Videos of groups are helpful, as is a fishbowl in which students observe an effective group at work.

            • Encourage argumentation, not arguing. Students need to learn how to disagree without being disagreeable – making claims, offering evidence, seeking clarification, using accountable talk, offering counterclaims, agreeing to disagree, or reaching consensus.

            • Use the best format. For whole-group discussions, a circle or U-shape allows students to see each others’ faces, which makes a big difference.

            • Provide language support. Some students are shy and rarely give voice to their ideas. Teachers can help students take part in discussions by providing sentence frames, language charts, word walls, audio devices, peer support, or teacher modeling.

            • Find the right group size. Small groups ideally have 2-5 students, say Fisher and Frey, and don’t all have to be the same size; some students work best with one partner, while others thrive in a larger group – but not more than five. Heterogeneous groups can be formed by making a list of all students in order of achievement, cutting the list in two, and forming each group with students from the two columns.

            • Listen, question, prompt, and cue. Teachers should tune in on student talk and intervene strategically, say Fisher and Frey: “In addition, teachers should be aware that their comments can build students’ sense of self – their self-esteem, agency, and identity – or damage it.” Here are some helpful prompts:

-   Can you tell us more?

-   Would you say that again?

-   Can you give me another example so we can understand?

-   I’d like to hear what others are thinking about Robert’s comment.

-   Take your time. I can see you’ve got further thoughts about this.

-   Why do you think that?

-   Where could we find that information you just brought up?

-   I’ll restate what you just said. Listen to make sure I got it right.

-   That’s a great question. Let’s pose it to the rest of the class. What do you think?

 

“Speaking Volumes” by Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey in Educational Leadership, November 2014 (Vol. 72, #3, p. 18-23), http://bit.ly/1vj7z7l; Fisher can be reached at [email protected], Frey at [email protected].

Back to page one

 

5. Helping Students Get Past Their Resistance to Writing

            “How is it that some students have so much to say when talking out loud, but when a pencil is put into their hand they suddenly hesitate, struggle, and have nothing to say?” asks Ali Parrish in this Edutopia article. She has a suggestion for this common classroom phenomenon: use their oral language to jumpstart their writing. Here are three strategies:

            • The student talks, the teacher writes. The teacher asks the student to stand up, sits in his or her chair, and says, “You talk, I’ll write.” After standing nonplussed for a moment, students often dictate a coherent and authentic story or an idea.

            • Audio record it. Hand the student a recording device – a tape recorder, digital audio recorder, computer, or smartphone – and say, “Step out in the hall and ‘write’ your essay using this.”

            • Audio transcribe it. Have students talk their ideas into a smartphone, tablet, or computer, using a speech-to-text program such as Dragon NaturallySpeaking, VoiceTranslator, or PaperPortNotes. Afterward, the student can e-mail it to him- or herself and revise the draft.

            “Our real hope and goal is for individuals to capture their high-quality thoughts and then convey them effectively to others,” says Parrish. “These strategies break down the barriers between a student’s mind and his or her audience… The sooner students (and teachers) see that writing has nothing to do with a pencil, a piece of paper or keyboard, and the sooner students see that writing is simply communicating, the sooner they will start making incredible progress. Barriers will come down. The handicapping hesitation of putting the pencil on the paper to ‘write’ will go away. Then students will feel free to ‘say it as it is’ in their writing.”

 

“3 Strategies to Improve Student Writing Instantly” by Ali Parrish in Edutopia, October 27, 2014, http://bit.ly/1vhNFtj

Back to page one

 

6. Using Small-Group Routines to Build ELLs’ Skills and Self-Assurance

(Originally titled “Fostering English Language Learners’ Confidence”)

            In this Educational Leadership article, Rhonda Bondie and Akane Zusho (Fordham University) and Laurie Gaughran (a New York City achievement coach) describe two classroom routines drawn from ALL-ED (www.all-ed.org/group_learning_examples) that greatly improved discussions for English language learners in a New York City high school:

            • Elbow partner exchange – Two students sitting next to each other discuss a specific question posed by the teacher – for example, before teaching a math mini-lesson, the teacher asks elbow partners to read a sample math problem and list questions that come to mind. This elicits prior knowledge, raises questions, and primes the pump for the mini-lesson. “Whereas in whole-group discussions, teachers only call on a few students,” say Bondie, Zusho, and Gaughran, “in these brief exchanges all students have someone interacting with them.” Before independent practice, the teacher might have elbow partners talk again, this time about which is the hardest problem, the strategies they plan to use, and questions they still need to ask.

            • Homework rounds – In small groups at the beginning of class, students compare answers to each homework problem, discuss disagreements, and figure out if there’s one correct answer or several possible answers. One member of the group is the designated recorder, jots down conclusions and remaining questions, and passes them to the teacher. This “live” correcting of homework allows the teacher to incorporate insights and address difficulties and misconceptions immediately, rather than waiting until the next day.

            The key with routines like these, say the authors, is teaching students to enact them without detailed instructions. Here are their tips:

-   Group students who have different strengths and levels of understanding. Many students enjoy being “teachers” to their peers.

-   Use simple, memorable routines with a name – for example, when one teacher announces “triad stations,” students move into assigned groups of three and complete two tasks in five minutes.

-   Use time limits and a specific challenge to increase focus. It’s also helpful to cold-call members of groups so everyone must pay attention and be accountable.

-   Involve students in improving routines. Students can help problem-solve when routines take too long or need more structure.

-   Set rules that foster confidence. One such rule, especially appropriate for students with limited English, is confirm or contribute – students have the option of repeating what another group member said or adding a new idea.

-   Don’t give up too easily. Not all routines work the first time, but with practice, students can manage them independently and make them the backbone of successful lessons.

-   Assess students’ emerging skills. Students might use a rubric or daily journal to monitor their own progress. One teacher reported, “The language development is big; some students who did not speak before are talking now. They are all communicating… They have to use the vocabulary and listen for it.”

 

“Fostering English Language Learners’ Confidence” by Rhonda Bondie, Akane Zusho, and Laurie Gaughran in Educational Leadership, November 2014 (Vol. 72, #3, p. 42-46),

http://bit.ly/1zx4pLf; the authors are at [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected].

Back to page one

 

7. Improving High-School Grading Practices

            In this Education Week article, California professional development consultant Joe Feldman lists some of the possible meanings of a B on a report card: “That a student mastered the standards, but came late every day? That the student understood half the standards, but persevered to complete every assignment and extra-credit offering? That the student aced major assessments, but was often disrespectful?”

Most principals know their teachers’ grading policies are all over the map, and yet few give their teachers clear guidelines on how to count different aspects of students’ performance. “A high-school student who sees five to seven different teachers a day has to navigate five to seven different grading systems,” says Feldman. “When a course is taught by several teachers (for example, Algebra I or English 9), two students who performed equally in different classes could receive entirely different grades.” And inevitably there’s subjectivity, even when assessing what seems to be the same student behavior – participation or effort, for example.

            Grades matter. They influence how students feel about different subjects (Am I “good at” math?), the need for additional support, athletic eligibility, promotion, graduation, college admission, scholarships, and employment. So why is there so little dialogue on this subject? “Discussions that ask teachers to talk about grading are hard, emotional, and confusing,” says Feldman. “To many teachers, asking them to change their grading practices suggests a challenge to their autonomy and professionalism – a reaction that reveals how tightly grades are tied psychologically, emotionally, and philosophically to their deepest thinking about their practice.”

            Feldman describes how he guided a group of teachers in a Northern California district to look at research on grading, reflect on their own grading practices, pilot some new ideas in their classrooms, share how things went, refine the changes, and repeat the cycle several times. The results were remarkable:

-   Teachers enjoyed the process of questioning long-time assumptions about grading.

-   The accuracy of students’ grades got better.

-   Trust between students and teachers improved.

-   Students’ passing rates went up significantly.

-   Students and teachers said the new system more accurately reflected their work.

One teacher spoke for others when he said he could never go back to the old way.

 

“Grading Standards Can Elevate Teaching” by Joe Feldman in Education Week, November 12, 2014 (Vol. 34, #12, p. 22), www.edweek.org

Back to page one

 

8. Is Common Core Math Too Confusing and Too Hard?

            In this Education Gadfly article, Robert Pondiscio and Kevin Mahnken respond to criticisms of Common Core’s elementary math standards made recently by Rick Hess of the American Enterprise Institute and New York principal Carol Burris:

   • The standards confuse children and parents. Burris quoted this first-grade standard: “Use strategies such as counting on; making ten (e.g., 8+6 = 8+2+4 = 10+4 = 14); decom-posing a number leading to a ten (e.g., 13-4 = 13-3-1 = 9)… and creating equivalent but easier or known sums (e.g., adding 6+7 by creating the known equivalent 6+6+1 = 12+1 = 13).” Pondiscio and Mahnken make three points.

First, standards are written for professional educators, not for students. “A teacher would no sooner read this kind of guidance to a seven-year-old than a waiter would recite food-handling procedures to a diner who merely wants to know what’s on the menu tonight,” say Pondiscio and Mahnken.

Second, Burris left out the first sentence of the standard: “Add and subtract within 20, demonstrating fluency for addition and subtraction within 10” – a clear and manageable expectation for first graders.

Third, the instructional examples quoted by Burris are preceded by the words “such as” – they are examples of many possible ways to teach this standard, all of which are in the repertoire of lots of teachers, especially in high-performing countries like Singapore and Japan.

• Some standards are too advanced for young students. Critics of elementary Common Core standards say that some are “developmentally inappropriate” – that children are simply not capable of achieving them. One example is asking kindergarten students to count to 100. Pondiscio and Mahnken say this level of knowledge is already in a number of states’ standards and is entirely appropriate for kindergarten – provided it’s interpreted as it’s written: counting to 100, not grasping all the components of fluency, conceptual understanding, and application.

Social psychologists like Daniel Willingham have shown that children don’t develop in rigid stages but rather in continuous flow and are often capable of more than we give them credit for. He and others believe the Common Core standards are manageable and appropriate – in the hands of good teachers. “How to get them there is part of the art and science of teaching and involves making sure that I know what my students know and can move them to where they need to be,” says California kindergarten teacher Robbie Torney. Pondiscio and Mahnken take the long view: “If we know where we want kids to be at the end of 13 years of schooling, delaying learning is the intellectual equivalent of a balloon payment on a mortgage. Sooner or later, it’s got to be paid up.”

• There is too much emphasis on abstract mathematical concepts. “Common Core certainly does challenge students to comprehend math at the conceptual level – the broad strokes of composing and decomposing numbers, for instance – but only in concert with, and not opposed to, mastering standard algorithms,” say Pondiscio and Mahnken. “[K]ids need both the ability to compute with speed and accuracy, to understand the answer they got, and to know whether it makes sense.” It’s up to teachers to implement the standards in a balanced way.

 

“A Response to Carol Burris and Rick Hess on Common Core Math in the Elementary Grades” by Robert Pondiscio and Kevin Mahnken in The Education Gadfly, November 12, 2014 (Vol. 14, #46), http://bit.ly/11jQZGl

Back to page one

 

9. Speed-Bumps in the Implementation of Common Core Math

            In this Education Week article, Liana Heitin reports on a spring 2014 talk by Michigan State University professor William Schmidt on the implementation of Common Core math standards:

-   Instructional time is sometimes not well-allocated. For example, grade 3 and 4 teachers are spending about half the time on fractions that experts say is necessary.

-   Some teachers admit their knowledge is not where it needs to be. This is especially true in middle-school teachers’ readiness to teach linear equations and grade 4 and 5 teachers with number sets and concepts.

-   Teacher preparation is substandard. Only one-third of U.S. pre-service teachers have taken all the necessary math-related courses before they begin teaching, compared to virtually all teachers in higher-performing countries.

-   Textbooks don’t cover all the standards. In one popular math text, Schmidt found that 30 percent of common-core standards were not included. He calls publishers’ claims that their instructional materials are aligned to Common Core largely a “sham.”

 

“Researcher Isolates Common-Core Math Implementation Problems” by Liana Heitin in Education Week, November 12, 2014 (Vol. 34, #12, p. S26), www.edweek.org

Back to page one

 

10. Getting Elementary Students Moving in Class

(Originally titled “‘It’s In the Cards’ and Other Movement Activities”)

            In this Education Update article, Linnea Lyding (Arizona Christian University) shares some fun ways to get elementary students engaged in short bursts of exercise. All the activities start with a brief reminder of the rules and creating an imaginary space around each student and end with silent, deep breaths.

            • It’s in the cards – The teacher gets out a deck of cards and posts a code on the board, perhaps:

-   Hearts = jumping jacks

-   Diamonds = knee lifts

-   Spades = straight jumps

-   Clubs = twists

Then a student draws a card and the number on the card directs the action – for example, a three of hearts means they’ll count by threes while doing 10 jumping jacks, reaching 30.

            • Silent syllable types – Everyone stands up and one student makes the motions for a syllable type with other students following – for example, “an open syllable” (students stand and stretch their arms wide), “ends with one vowel” (students sign the number one and the letter V), “the one vowel in an open syllable is long” (students sign the number one and the letter V, stretch their arms out wide, and reach for the ceiling on their toes), “mark it with a macron” (students mimic a line above their heads).

            • Ball toss – A beach ball with numbers written on it is tossed to a student who must add, multiply, or subtract the numbers his or her fingers land on. Then the student chooses an activity for that number, such as knee raises or push-ups, and the class performs the same number of repetitions as the answer.

 

“‘It’s in the Cards’ and Other Movement Activities” by Linnea Lyding in Education Update, November 2014 (Vol. 56, #11, p. 5), www.ascd.org; Lyding can be reached at [email protected].

Back to page one

 

11. Short Items:

            a. Airline travel graphic display – This remarkable website shows all one day’s airline flights on a world map and also has links explaining the growth of air travel in the last century: http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2014/aviation-100-years

Back to page one

 

            b. Story starter websites – In this School Library Journal feature, Richard Byrne suggests apps to help students get started with their writing. Here are three that are free:

• Write About This http://ow.ly/CwmbT

• WordWriter http://www.boomwriter.com/wordwriter

• StoryToolz http://storytoolz.com

 

“Four Top Story Starters” by Richard Byrne in School Library Journal, November 2014 (Vol. 60,#11, p. 16); Byrne can be reached at [email protected].

Back to page one

 

© Copyright 2014 Marshall Memo LLC

 

Do you have feedback? Is anything missing?

If you have comments or suggestions, if you saw an article or web item in the last week

 that you think should have been summarized, or if you would like to suggest

additional publications that should be covered by the Marshall Memo,

please e-mail: [email protected]

About the Marshall Memo